iCitizenForum by Colonial Williamsburg

A

Accountability

Accountability means that the government in a democracy is politically answerable to the people. Specifically, both appointed and elected officials of the government are held responsible to the people by the laws that regulate the use of the government’s power. Accountability is primarily ensured by periodic elections, which the people use to choose their representatives. Also, mass media (Internet, newspapers, television, and radio, for example) informs the public about elected officials’ performance, and the laws that govern freedom of speech and the press thus contribute to accountability in a democracy.
See Related: Civil Society; Elections; Independent Media; Popular Sovereignty

Authority

Authority is the legitimate use of power by government over its citizens. Government in a democracy derives its authority or legitimacy from the consent of the people, which is based on fair, competitive, public elections.
See Related: Elections; Popular Sovereignty

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B

Bicameralism

Bicameralism is the organization of a legislative body based on two chambers. In some democracies, the lower house has the greatest legislative power, and the upper or second house of the legislature has a more restricted role. In the United States, both the Senate and the House of Representatives have broadly equivalent power, and legislative differences are resolved via joint committees. In federal systems, the upper house usually represents the units of the federation, e.g., states or provinces, which may be given an equal number of seats regardless of their population size.
See Related: Authority; Federalism; Parliamentary System

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C

Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic system characterized by ownership of property and capital (i.e., accumulated facilities and goods used as the means of production) by individuals and corporations. Investments are determined by private decision rather than government, and prices, production, and the distribution of goods are determined mainly in a free market. Aggregates of property or capital provide income for the individuals or firms that accumulate and own it, and individuals and firms are relatively free to compete with others for their own economic gain.
See Related: Communism; Market Economy; Socialism

Citizen

Citizens are “the People” to whom legitimate democratic governments are accountable. A citizen is the full and equal member (a “partner” or “owner”) of a political community, e.g., a country or a nation-state. Citizens have both equal rights and equal responsibilities for their political community. Citizens are not subjects but share in the sovereignty of their nation.
See Related: Citizenship; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Popular Sovereignty; State

Citizenship

Citizenship is the legal relationship between citizens and their government and country. Citizens are responsible for the governance of their political community. Citizens owe a legitimate government their loyalty, support, and service — for the common good. Governments owe their citizens the protection of constitutionally guaranteed rights to life, liberty, property, and equal justice under the law.
See Related: Citizen; Civil Society; Government, Constitutional and Limited; State

Civic Education

Civic education is how governments teach — and citizens learn about — their rights and responsibilities of citizenship in a democracy. The knowledge, skills, and virtues needed by citizens to participate effectively and intelligently in government and civil society are fundamental requirements to maintain democracy. Each generation of citizens must learn to vote competently, communicate effectively about public issues, cooperate with their fellow citizens to solve common problems, and make judgments about the performance of government. Formal civic education is transmitted via school curricula, and informal civic education is transmitted through various societal organizations that individuals participate in.
See Related: Citizen; Civil Society; Participation; Civic Virtue

Civic Virtue

Civic virtues are the ideals and principles of a democracy. These character traits, such as civility, honesty, charity, compassion, courage, loyalty, tolerance, patriotism, and self-restraint, prompt citizens to contribute to the well-being of their community and democracy.
See Related: Citizen; Civic Education; Civil Society; Participation

Civil Society

Civil society is the network of nongovernmental organizations, such as labor unions, formal religious organizations, professional and business associations, private schools, community service organizations, and privately owned media, that are separate from government but subject to the rule of law. Through their participation in nongovernmental organizations, citizens develop the knowledge, skills, and virtues of citizenship that are required to maintain - and improve -- their democracy. A vibrant civil society also shows that citizens are willing to donate their time and energy to improving their communities, and to use their constitutional rights to freedom of assembly, speech, and press.
See Related: Common Good; Constitutionalism; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Independent Media; Participation; Pluralism; State

Common Good

The common good refers to the well-being of the people as an aggregate whole. In every democracy there is a degree of tension between the personal and public rights and interests of individuals and the communitarian, or collective, whole. Both individualistic and communitarian conceptions of the common good are combined and expressed in democracies so that public safety, order, and stability are maintained with the cooperation of the citizens who recognize that their personal fulfillment cannot be attained unless the general welfare of their community is assured.
See Related: Citizenship; Civic Virtue; Civil Society; Liberalism; Republicanism

Commonwealth

Commonwealth is a form of government in which the body politic is founded on the rule of law and united by the consent of the people to form a politically organized community (e.g., a state, nation, etc.) for the common good. The supreme power resides with the people and their representatives.
See Related: Accountability; Civil Society; Citizen; Common Good; Republic

Communism

Communism is an economic system characterized by the collective ownership of the means of production and by the organization of labor for the common good of all members of society. Production facilities and capital are owned by the state, and economic decisions are made by the government, rather than being directed by market action. Often, in a communist system, a single, authoritarian political party controls the economic, social, and cultural life of the society.
See Related: Capitalism; Market Economy; Socialism

Congress

A congress is a formal legislative body of a nation, especially a republic, which assembles to discuss and solve the public problems of a democracy. It may be unicameral or bicameral.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Democracy; Representative; Parliamentary System; Presidential System; Republic

Conservative

Philosophically and politically, a conservative is most supportive of the established order. Conservatives support the status quo not so much because they like it per se; rather they believe it is the best that can be achieved at the given time since they lack confidence in society's ability to improve via bold policy initiatives. Generally, conservatives view proposals for change with distrust. They place great importance on order and value institutions and traditions that have evolved over time.
See Related: Liberal; Liberalism; Republicanism

Constitution

A constitution is the fundamental framework of principles and laws that prescribes the purposes, powers, and limits of a government and sets forth how a country is administered. It is the supreme law of a country, and all institutions, individuals, and groups must obey the constitution. While constitutions vary in length and detail, all of have seven common attributes: a preamble that states the purposes of government; a description of the structure of government; an explanation of the powers and limits of government; provisions about Citizenship; guarantees of basic human Rights; means of electing and appointing government officials; and procedures for amendment.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Government, Constitutional and Limited

Constitutionalism

Constitutionalism combines two concepts, limited government and the rule of law, to illustrate the relationship between a government and its citizens. These concepts permeate the constitutions of every democracy today, and hold that the best government is both constitutionally empowered to act decisively and effectively to fulfill a common good and limited by law to protect the rights of the people.
See Related: Constitution; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Government, Constitutional and Limited

Country

A country is a political state or nation, which is distinguished by the attributes of its people and government.
See Related: Nation-State; State

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D

Democracy

Democracy is a form of government by the people. It is based upon majority rule. In a direct democracy, the supreme power of government is held and exercised directly by the people, rather than through elected representatives. In a representative democracy, the people administer their government indirectly by delegating their authority to officials and representatives that they choose by way of periodic and free elections.
See Related: Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Republic

Democracy, Representative and Constitutional

Democracy today is representative, meaning that the people exercise power indirectly through their elected public officials, and it is also constitutional, meaning the government is both limited and empowered to protect the rights of all citizens. The elected representatives serve the interests of their constituents within the framework of a constitutionally limited government that ensures both majority rule and minority rights.
See Related: Constitution; Constitutionalism; Elections; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Rights; State

Diversity

Diversity is variety - for example, of ethnicity, religious beliefs, ideas and interests, social and political groups, and centers of power. In a free and open civil society, which typifies a constitutional democracy, the rights to freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, and association are protected, which encourages diversity. There is open communication of ideas and differences of opinion; there are myriad nongovernmental organization that cooperate and compete to promote their opinions and interests; and there are political parties that compete to advance their vision of how government should perform its functions. Last, diversity in centers of power -- i.e., national and local government, nongovernmental organizations, a market economy -- provides a division of power among different levels of government, which serves to limit power and protect the liberty of citizens.
See Related: Federalism; Market Economy; Participation; Pluralism; Political Party

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E

Elections

Elections are the hallmark of democracy. Through the periodic occurrence of free, fair, transparent, and competitive elections the people express their will on the common issues of their society and select their representatives and officials, who will then administer and exercise the power of government on their behalf with their consent. Elections enfranchise citizens, linking them to their government and giving them a stake in the fair and appropriate exercise of its power. Since citizens select their representatives, elections help to legitimate government and contribute to societal stability.
See Related: Accountability; Authority; Participation; Political Party

Equality

Equality means equal justice under the law. In a democracy, citizens are constitutionally guaranteed equal protection under the law, which means that no one is above or beyond the laws of the society. All citizens are entitled to fair and equal treatment by the legal system; basic human rights, which means that every person is an equal member of the human species and is thus entitled to security of liberty based on the Rule of Law; and equality of citizenship, which means that all persons have the same rights and privileges regardless of wealth, race, gender, etc.
See Related: Citizen; Citizenship; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Justice; Liberalism; Rights; Rule of Law

Executive

The executive branch of government is charged with the conduct of foreign policy, supreme command of the military, execution of the laws, and appointment of other government officials. It also holds a degree of legislative power in the form of the veto, initiation of legislation, and dissolution of the legislature.
See Related: Federalism; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Judicial; Legislative

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F

Fascism

Fascism is a reactionary rejection of democracy and capitalism. It is a form of totalitarian government that seeks to control all aspects of society and to increase the personal power of a dictator within the state. It is essentially a collection of fear- and hatred-based rationalizations used to respond to political problems. Its driving force is the rejection of basic human rights and objective science and reason. It is also an elitist theory that holds people are obviously unequal and to deny this fundamental rule of human nature is pure folly. The extension of elitism is imperialism and militarism, where one nation dominates others and asserts it "national will" through war, which is considered the highest form of human power.
See Related: Capitalism; Communism; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Government, Constitutional and Limited; State; Unitary State

Federalism

Federalism, which was created by the framers of the U.S. Constitution, is the division of powers between a central, national government and local governments within the state. The constitutional powers delegated to the national or federal government take precedence over the powers of the local or state governments. While each level of government is supreme in its own sphere of authority and can separately exercise powers directly upon the people under its authority, the federal government prevails throughout the nation. However, federalism limits the powers of government by delegating the exercise of certain functions to different levels of government and creating a balance of power between the federal and local governments.
See Related: Citizenship; Diversity; Government, Constitutional and Limited; State; Unitary State

Freedom

Freedom is not being coerced or constrained by another person or entity. It is freedom of choice and the unfettered expression of rational self-determination.
See Related: Citizen; Citizenship; Civic Education; Civic Virtue; Constitution; Liberty; Rights

Freedom of Assembly

Freedom of assembly is the right to associate with like-minded individuals, in the form of groups, nongovernmental organizations, political parties, etc., without government restriction. In constitutional democracies, freedom of assembly and association are guaranteed to citizens, who can organize themselves to advance their ideas and opinions and to protest the actions of their government. This ability, in turn, holds government accountable for its actions.
See Related: Accountability; Citizen; Citizenship; Civic Education; Civic Virtue; Constitution; Liberty; Rights

Freedom of the Press

Freedom of the press is the right to publish newspapers, periodicals, books, pamphlets, etc., without government restriction or censorship, subject only to the existing laws against libel and defamation, sedition, and indecency. In a constitutional democracy, freedom of the press is guaranteed and serves as a check on the exercise of governmental powers.
See Related: Accountability; Citizen; Citizenship; Civic Education; Civic Virtue; Constitution; Liberty; Rights

Freedom of Religion

Freedom of religion is the right of all individuals to practice the religion of their choice, including the freedom to not practice any religion or to be atheist or agnostic, without persecution or government restriction. In a constitutional democracy, it is considered a fundamental human right.
See Related: Citizen; Citizenship; Civic Education; Civic Virtue; Constitution; Liberty; Rights

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G

Government, Constitutional and Limited

Government is the organization of political, economic, social, and military institutions by which a state exercises authority and rules its people. Its primary purpose is to maintain order and stability while protecting its citizens' rights under the rule of law. In a democracy, the constitution is the supreme law of the land, and it prescribes the powers, purposes, and limits of government, ensuring that the government serves the common good. The constitution can limit governmental power by enumerating its powers. Also, it can create a system of checks and balances whereby the primary branches of government have separate powers. It can also limit government by establishing a federal system in which powers are shared by national and local administrative units. Periodic, free, fair, and competitive elections limit the power of government as well, and citizens can affect change in their government by electing different representatives. Last, the constitution can guarantee basic inalienable human rights, which the government cannot violate.
See Related: Civil Society; Constitution; Constitutionalism;
Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Rule of Law; Separation of Powers

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H

House

The "house" typically refers to the lower chamber of a bicameral legislature. Representatives are elected by the people and govern on their behalf. In the United States, the number of representatives in the House of Representatives for each state is determined by the state's population size. In most democracies, the house has greater legislative power since it more directly represents the governed.
See Related: Bicameralism; Senate

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I

Independent Media

In a constitutional democracy, the mass media is privately and independently owned. Free of government control, media outlets, such as newspapers, periodicals, Web sites, and radio and television stations, are free to transmit information and ideas to the people. An independent mass media helps to educate citizens about issues of public concern, offering alternative viewpoints and assessments of government performance. By examining in the public eye the policies and actions of elected and appointed officials, the mass media helps to hold government accountable to its citizens.
See Related: Accountability; Citizenship; Civic Education; Civil Society; Freedom of the Press; Constitutionalism; Rights

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J

Judicial Independence

Judicial independence is the separation of the judiciary from the legislative and executive branches of government, which protects it from political pressure and coercion. An independent, impartial judiciary is essential in a constitutional democracy as it guards and upholds the constitution and the rule of law.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Judicial Review; Rule of Law; Separation of Powers

Judicial Review

Judicial review is the power of the independent judiciary to check the exercise of powers by the executive and legislative branches of government, ensuring that they act in accordance with the constitution. As the final authority on the interpretation of the law, the courts protect and defend the constitution. Judicial review also serves to protect minority rights against an oppressive majority.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Justice; Majority Rule; Minority Rights; Rights; Rule of Law; Separation of Powers

Judiciary

The judiciary is the system of courts that impartially interprets the laws of a state. The courts do not make the laws, a function performed by the legislative branch, nor do they enforce the laws, which is the function of the executive branch. However, the judiciary maintains the integrity of the constitution and protects the rights and liberties guaranteed therein.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Justice; Rights; Rule of Law; Separation of Powers

Justice

The establishment of justice is one of the main purposes of a constitution. Basically, justice is the equal treatment and protection of each person's rights according to the rule of law, which is enshrined in democratic constitutions. Due process of law ensures procedural justice by impartially resolving conflicts between individuals or between individuals and their government. Equal justice under the law ensures stability and order in society. Distributive justice pertains to the government's distribution of benefits to its citizens. Public programs such as Social Security and Medicare in the United States and public education are examples of distributive justice.
See Related: Equality; Liberalism; Liberty; Rule of Law; Social Democracy

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L

Legislative

The legislative branch of government makes laws. Elected representatives to the legislature conduct the business of the people with their consent.
See Related: Bicameralism; Constitutionalism; Federalism; Separation of Powers

Liberal

A liberal favors rapid, substantial, and progressive change in the status quo through the use of legal means. Classic liberals (known as libertarians) emphasize limited government and the rule of law to secure the inherent and inalienable rights of the individual, which include freedom of conscience and religion, private ownership and use of property, freedom of assembly, and due process of law and habeas corpus. Contemporary liberals (known as welfare state liberals) emphasize the use of government to promote distributive justice in tandem with personal liberty. In their view, positive government action is needed to provide social and economic benefits to the underprivileged and disadvantaged while maintaining constitutional guarantees of civil liberties.
See Related: Civil Society; Constitutionalism; Equality; Justice; Liberty; Rights; Social Democracy; State

Liberalism

Liberalism is a political theory of government based on several beliefs about the relationships of individuals, civil society, and government. These include a belief in the autonomy of the individual, which is paramount to the State; protection of political and civil liberties; conduct of government under the rule of law with the consent of the people; the essential goodness of humankind; tolerance and diversity in civic, political, and social life; and that all people are of equal worth and entitled to equal rights, dignity, and respect. A free and open civil society and a free and open market economy are essential to a liberal democracy.
See Related: Civil Society; Constitutionalism; Equality; Justice; Liberty; Market Economy; Rights; Social Democracy; State

Liberty

Liberty is the freedom of choice - to speak and act according to the individual's conscience. In the constitutional democracies of the modern world, a primary purpose of government is to protect and promote individual and civil liberties. Basic human rights and fundamental civil liberties, such as freedom of speech and press, assembly and association, to vote and otherwise participate in elections, freedom of conscience and religion, and freedom from unwanted government invasions of one's home and other private spaces, are guaranteed by the constitutions of democracies. Within the context of civil society and constitutional government, rights to civil liberty are protected and maintained by the rule of law and by limiting the power of government to prevent it from abusing the people.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Liberalism; Rights

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M

Majority Rule

Majority rule is a political principle that is essential in a democracy. It provides that a majority, which is usually 50 percent plus one of all persons who participate in an election, shall have the power to make binding decisions for the common good. In every democracy today, majority rule is both embedded in and limited by the constitution so that minority rights are also protected.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Equality; Justice; Liberalism; Liberty; Rights

Minority Rights

Minority rights are constitutionally protected in a democracy. While the votes of the majority are binding for all members of a representative, constitutional democracy, the minority is free and able to criticize the majority and its decisions. The minority is also free and able to attempt to replace their representatives in the next public election.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Equality; Justice; Liberalism; Liberty; Majority Rule; Rights

Market Economy

A market economy is an economic system based on free enterprise and the rights to private property. It is a cornerstone of constitutional democracy. The hallmarks of a market economy are competition, supply and demand, and the principle of laissez-faire, which holds that government should stay out of economic matters.
See Related: Capitalism; Constitutionalism; Justice; Liberalism; Pluralism, Social Democracy

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N

Nation-State

The nation-state is a form of political organization that is characterized by a relatively homogeneous group of people who, because of shared familial relationships, language, culture, and/or geographic proximity, have a sense of union. The people of a nation-state define themselves as a nation within the territorial boundaries of an independent and sovereign state.
See Related: State

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P

Parliamentary System

A parliamentary system is a form of government in which the people elect the legislature, which then chooses a leader who is appointed prime minister by the head of state. The head of state also appoints other members of the legislature to the cabinet based on the recommendation of the prime minister. The cabinet serves as the executive branch of government. It is a unitary system of government, and the legislative branch holds the supreme governing power. The parliamentary system is a more direct form of democracy. While there is an electoral process featuring regularly scheduled elections, at any time the majority party can be turned out if it loses the support of the majority of the parliament by a vote of no confidence.
See Related: Accountability; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Judicial Independence; Judicial Review; Participation; Presidential System; Political Party; Separation of Powers

Participation

Participation by citizens in their civil society and government is a necessary condition of democracy and takes place on several levels. Civic participation involves the voluntary activities of citizens in nongovernmental organizations such as clubs and churches to improve their community. Political participation refers to the activities of citizens and groups of citizens to influence government policy-making, which includes voting, membership in a political party, and lawful protest.
See Related: Citizenship; Civil Society; Elections; Liberalism; Pluralism; Political Party; Popular Sovereignty; Republicanism; Rights

Pluralism

Pluralism is a decision-making process in which members of diverse ethnic, racial, religious, or social groups maintain independent participation within the state and civil society. Individuals and groups put forward their competing interests and viewpoints in order to influence public opinion and pressure the government to make decisions in their favor.
See Related: Civil Society; Diversity; Political Party; Rights

Political Party

In a constitutional democracy, a political party is an independent organization that nominates candidates for positions in government in hopes of winning elections and thereby gaining control of the government. In most democracies, there is a multi-party system; in some democracies, such as the United States and Great Britain, there are only two political parties. In all democracies, however, more than one party has the constitutional right to compete in elections, and the rights of the minority are protected by constitutional guarantees.
See Related: Accountability; Elections; Parliamentary System; Presidential System

Popular Sovereignty

Popular sovereignty is the belief that the people are the sole source of political power and authority. The concept is a founding principle of the American idea and of the United States government. The Declaration of Independence asserts that legitimate governments derive "their just Powers from the Consent of the Governed."
See Related: Accountability; Authority; Constitution; Constitutionalism; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Participation; Republic; Republicanism

Presidential System

A presidential system is based on the separation of powers among three independent branches of government - the executive, judicial and legislative -- with checks and balances to ensure that no one branch continuously dominates the government. In contrast to a parliamentary system, a presidential system has a strong and independent chief executive, i.e., a president, with extensive domestic and foreign policy powers who is elected by the people to serve strictly established terms of office. The president appoints a cabinet of executive officers, and together they superintend the execution of laws and administer the day-to-day operations of government. The president also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and responsible for the country's national security. The president and other cabinet officials can be dismissed from office before their terms of office expire through a process of impeachment, though this is a rare occurrence. Otherwise, the president and other members of the executive branch remain in their positions until the next election, which makes them less directly accountable to the governed. The separation of powers and system of checks and balances that are characteristic of a presidential system help to limit governmental power and to protect the constitutionally guaranteed rights of the citizens.
See Related: Accountability; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Judicial Independence; Judicial Review; Parliamentary System; Political Party; Separation of Powers

Private Wealth

Private wealth is the accumulation of money and/or property that has monetary or exchangeable value by a person, partnership, or corporation.
See Related: Capitalism; Market Economy

Privileges

Privileges include any of various fundamental or basic human rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, the right to acquire and own property, freedom of speech, etc., that are guaranteed to all individuals by modern constitutional democracies.
See Related: Citizenship; Rights

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R

Republic

A republic is a form of government in which the people elect representatives to make the laws for them. It is based on the consent of the governed, and is also called indirect democracy or representative government. However, not all republics are democracies and vice versa. For example, the United Kingdom is a democracy that is a constitutional monarchy, and Iran is a nondemocratic republic.
See Related: Authority; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Popular Sovereignty; Republicanism

Republicanism

Republicanism is a theory of government that emphasizes the common good over the personal rights and privileges of the private citizen. It is a participatory model of democracy in which citizens are extensively obligated to cooperate in support of their community and government. Popular sovereignty is the foundation of republican government, and governmental accountability is achieved through the continuous, sustained civic and political participation of citizens and nongovernmental organizations. The cultivation of civic virtue is a paramount obligation for all citizens, and all citizens are expected to subjugate their needs to the public interests of their community.
See Related: Accountability; Citizenship; Civic Virtue; Democracy, Representative and Constitutional; Liberalism; Participation; Republic

Responsibilities

Responsibilities are the duties and powers prescribed by the constitution to private citizens, elected officials and representatives, and institutions of government and civil society. For an individual in a constitutional democracy, these include voting competently in elections, communicating effectively about public issues, cooperating with their fellow citizens to solve common problems, and making judgments about the performance of government. For representatives and institutions of government, powers are enumerated and limited by the constitution. The basic responsibilities of government in a constitutional democracy are the promotion and maintenance of peace, stability, order, and justice.
See Related: Citizen; Citizenship; Civic Education; Civic Virtue; Constitution; Liberalism; Republicanism; Rights

Rights

Rights of the people are guaranteed by the constitution and rule of law in a democracy. Political rights include freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and petition. Civic rights include freedom of conscience or belief, religion, and expression; privacy; due process of law; and ownership and use of private property for personal benefit. In addition, constitutional democracies hold sacred basic human rights, such as the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
See Related: Equality; Justice; Liberalism; Liberty; Social Democracy

Rule of Law

The rule of law is an essential characteristic of a constitutional democracy. It exists when a state's constitution is the supreme law of the land, and all laws are made to conform to the constitution. Also, the rule of law requires the equal and impartial enforcement of the laws, with all citizens, public officials, and branches of government obligated to obey the laws equally.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Judicial Independence; Judicial Review

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S

Senate

The "senate" usually refers to the upper house of a bicameral legislature. Its members may or may not be directly elected by the people. It may have more restricted legislative power than the lower house. In a federal system, the number of senators that represent each state or province is usually equal, since the senators represent each unit of the federation rather than the actual population of those units. In the United States, the Senate has an equal voice in the legislative process with the House of Representatives, and differences are resolved via a committee system.
See Related: Bicameralism; House

Separation of Church and State

The separation of church and state is a political and legal principle primarily derived from the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which reads that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof . . . ." The term commonly refers to the combination of secularity of government and freedom of religious exercise by citizens.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Separation of Powers

Separation of Powers

The separation of powers in a constitutional democracy within a presidential system of government is the basic means for limiting government and thereby protecting the people from abuses of power. The branches of government - executive, legislative, and judicial -- have separate and shared powers that serve as a system of checks and balances. Therefore, no one branch of government can continuously dominate the government or accumulate too much power. However, each branch of government is empowered to do what the constitution prescribes and what the people expect. For example, while the president of the United States is the commander in chief of the armed forces, only Congress can enact fiscal legislation to fund military activity. The Supreme Court uses judicial review to prevent either the legislative or executive branch from violating the Constitution. In the parliamentary system of a constitutional democracy, power is distributed among the three branches of government, but the executive and legislative are closely linked, with the executive branch derived from the legislature. The judiciary is independent and serves as a check on the other two branches of government.
See Related: Constitutionalism; Government, Constitutional and Limited; Judicial Independence; Judicial Review; Parliamentary System; Presidential System

Social Democracy

Social democracy is a system of political thought and positive government action that seeks to redistribute the resources of society to ameliorate economic and social inequality. It is a form of distributive justice whereby the government provides social and economic rights and benefits necessary to secure the well-being of all members of the community. Social and economic rights include equal access to public education, health care, housing, productive employment, fair payment for workers, and a social security system.
See Related: Common Good; Equality; Justice: Liberalism; Liberty; Republicanism

Socialism

Socialism is the application of communist principles to a national economy. It is characterized by public ownership of the means of production, the establishment of a welfare state, egalitarianism, and communalism. By either nationalizing or expropriating the major means of production a socialist government exerts control over the economy. Some socialist regimes take a different approach to public ownership of industry, and establish cooperative enterprises that are made up of individuals who collectively own the enterprise, perform the work, manage the assets, and share the profits. Socialism seeks to eliminate extreme disparities in wealth among citizens via the egalitarian distribution of goods and services. However, the critical feature of socialism is the socialist intent, which is the goal of liberating people from the conditions of material dependence and its ignoble effects.
See Related: Capitalism; Communism; Market Economy; Social Democracy

Sovereign

The sovereign is the highest legal authority in a society. Sometimes the term refers to a monarch.
See Related: Subject

State

The state is the basic unit of organization in the international community today. It is a political union of people occupying a specific territory with defined borders. The state includes all the institutions of government that claims sovereignty over the people living within its boundaries, and exercises legitimate power over those people. It traditionally means "country," but can also refer to subordinate political units of a federal system, such as in the United States.
See Related: Authority; Citizen; Citizenship; Federalism; Unitary State

Subject

A subject is a person who lives in the territory of a state, and is governed and protected by its laws and owes allegiance to that state or its ruler.
See Related: Authority; Citizen

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U

Unitary State

In a unitary state, local governments are completely subordinate to the national government. The central government has absolute authority over all levels of government. Basically, the local units of government in a unitary state serve as administrative departments that carry out the policies of the central government and do not act independently. A unitary state can be a constitutional democracy or an authoritarian state.
See Related: Federalism; Republic; State

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